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Roman Presence In Palestine Around the year 50 BC, a vague anti-Roman agitation covered the entire country. Thus the Jewish territory was divided into 5 districts. Jericho, Jerusalem, Sepphoris, Amathus, and Gadara were the Centers of these Districts. Assemblies were established in each District. Rome believed strongly in the principle: Divide, and it was easier to rule. Beginning around 40 BC, there was a new overthrow under Julius Caesar. Grateful for Jewish and Egyptian help, Caesar accorded them new privileges. Jerusalem was now exempt from taxation. Joppa was restored to Jewish jurisdiction. And Hyrcan II was recognized as the Jewish Ethnarch. Hyrcan II had charge of Roman power on behalf of the Jews, while Antipater helped him in the role of Procurator of the Kingdom. Judea was re-established in its own glory. But Judea would only be fully restored by Herod, the son of Antipater. Faithful to Rome and to the interests of Mark Anthony (the Master of the Orient), Herod knew how to adapt to circumstances. After Octavius victory over Mark Anthony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, Herod drew nearer to being the new Master of the Orient. Cities rebuilt by Herod received names in honor of the Roman Emperor. E.g. Caesarea among the coast, Sebaste in Samaria, Jerusalem with her palaces, and the Antonia Fortress. Herod wanted to participate fully in the pax romana. In building, he used roman architecture to create a Roman way of life. The Jews were offended, however, when he was finally promoted to the rank of King of Judah. For he was an Idumaean, and not of the Tribe of Judah. The fact that Herod had actually eliminated all his political rivals did not bring him any closer to the Jewish people. He slaughtered the representatives of the Hasmonean House and transformed the Sanhedrin into a puppet institution. He brought pagans into his court as councilors, and as members of his administrative department. Herod established a military contingent at Batanea (the Bashan) in the Golan region to watch over the north-east portion of his empire. In spite of all his efforts to gain the loyalty of the people, violence erupted upon his death in 4 BC. Under Herod the Greats rule, the State showed a great firmness in collecting taxes. Since he spent far beyond his means, Herod was obliged to show himself more severe toward his subjects by imposing heavy taxes, recalled Josephus in Antiquities Jiuves (A.J. 16:154). The census under Quirinus had as target to number all the subjects and estimate their possessions for assessing taxes. In the year 25 BC, a famine was reported. Nonetheless, taxes were still demanded. Taxes and services only partially covered the expenses of his government. The excessive taxation weighed heavily upon the people. The cities of Gaza, Gandara and Hippo were part of Herods dominion. Samaria was exempt one-fourth of the taxes (A.J. 17:319). Herod also had a considerable private fortune which he obtained in part by executing a number of important persons in his kingdom (A.J. 17:307). Furthermore in 12 BC, the Emperor Augustus gave him the copper mines of Soli, in Cyprus (A.J. 16:128). Finally, gifts often arrived to fill up the depleting coffers of Herod (A.J. 17:308). At his death, Herod left the nation completely impoverished (A.J.17:304). The Ethnarch Archelaus became Ruler of Judea. His removal from office and exile to Gaul in 6 AD marked the end of a period in which the Romans showed favor by giving vast local autonomy. Rome also took over control of Palestinian business. They quickly sent prefect-procurators to administer the affairs of the new sub-province of Syria. These Roman administrators were invested with the powers of taxation, and judiciary and miliary powers. Autonomy in religious affairs was still honored, but the Procurator had the right to appoint the High Priests and control the duties of their office. Uner Roman rule in the years 66-44 BC, and 41-6 BC, taxes stayed the same. For the Province of Judah, however, they were increased to 600 talents (A.J. 17:320). In 66 BC, the Roman authorities in Jerusalem collected 40 talents of overdue taxes ( Bellum Judaicum B.J. 2:405). Tacitus, the Roman Historian, agreed that there were many complaints concerning the tax burdens. In 17 AD, the Provinces of Syria and of Judah petitioned for a reduction. The refusal to lessen the tax burdens was the motive for the Jewish War, and the Siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD according to Josephus Flavius (B.J. 5:405). It was difficult to assess the gifts and bribes that were paid out to those in authority or administrative services. Corruption extended to the highest positions. Complaints relating to the abuses of the procurators - of Pilate in particular - were numerous. Thus, Galilee became part of the Tetrarchy of Herod Antipas who rebuilt and fortified Sepphoris, declaring it the Capital of Galilee.
Both women and men wore a loincloth, the equivalent of underpants. This was a long thin strip of cloth which was wound around the waist and then between the legs, with the end tucked in at the waist. Women probably wore some sort of binding around their breasts. Jewish Life: Circumcision and Childhood. Circumcision was the physical sign of the Covenenant. Abraham received the order to circumcise when he was 99 years old. Later tradition placed the circumcision of Abraham on the Day of Yon Kippur. This association brought a sense of expiation to the ritual of circumcision. Judaism gave an interpretation to the significance to circumcision. One only wrote down the order of genealogy as a reference in the genealogy, because son-ship did not consist in having a place in biological chain. Rabbis in the time of Jesus well knew that circumcision was practiced before the time of Abraham, and that the desert generation had neglected this commandment. Therefore Joshua had to have all the Hebrews circumcised before they entered the Promised Land (Jos. 5:2). Nevertheless, they gave it a new meaning: it became the Sign of the Covenant with God. Only those circumcised would be able to eat of the Passover lamb (Ex. 12: 44-48). In the times of Jezebel, it seemed that circumcision was abandoned (1 Ruth 19:14). The prophet Elijah intervened to re-establish it. It was for this reason that tradition believed that God was present at all ceremonies of circumcision. The ceremony created an occasion for a family feast at which they drank and danced, clapping hands. It was on the eighth day that circumcision was practiced according to the Mohel, in the presence of the father of the family. If the eighth day was on a Sabbath, circumcision was permitted (Sabbat 130b-132a). All Jewish boys learned to read and write in their own family. The only known book was the Bible. Parchments were very expensive. Dressed in his tallit, the child learned the history of his own people by hearing commentaries on the texts proclaimed each Shabbat in the synagogue. He gradually assimilated the history of Israel; the election, the promises, the covenant, the gift of the land, the law. He learned how to sing the psalms, in particular the Hallel. Two times a day, he recited the Shema Israel and the prayer of Shemone Esre. He wore phylacteries and did not shave the hair of his temples, as prescribed in the Bible. Jesus childhood and youth developed within the framework of a small rural village - Can anything good come from Nazareth? (Jn.1:46). His horizons soon expanded beyond Nazareth, and even Galilee. Sepphoris, the Capital of Galilee, was not more than a few kilometers from the village of his childhood. There, Jesus came in contact with a Roman village, with its own theater, villas and banks. A new culture, occupied by strangers, opened before his eyes. Why were the Romans present in the land promised to our fathers? He must have heard this question many a time. At the age of twelve, Jesus went down to the Temple of Jerusalem to make his bar mitswa, to become a son of the commandment like all young Jewish boys. He talked with the teachers who marveled at his wisdom. He discovered the Temple with its priests, its merchants, and its brightly colored and boisterous crowd. To His parents who searched for Him, He answered that He had to be about His Fathers affairs. He already had a deep awareness of his relationship with God whom He called His Father. Returning to Nazareth, Jesus was subject to Mary and Joseph, and ever close to the ordinariness of life. He was not a idle dreamer. Later, in his teaching, he compared the Reign of God to a lamp which gave light to the entire house, or to yeast which a woman took and kneaded into three measures of flour, and which made all the dough rise, or still better, of seed sown in the earth which grew up irresistibly, whether man was awake or asleep. Throughout his preaching, the memories of his childhood shown forth. The images which he returned to in his teaching - the lilies of the fields, the birds that ate the grain on the road, as well as that of the widow who demanded justice and that of the unjust judge -- revealed a profound religious sensitivity to ordinary life. The Reign of God was an image of the earth which produced first the plant, then the ear, finally the ear of grain. The world was a Temple where one was able to encounter God. Marriage It was quite common to be engaged to a relative. Inter-marriage among Tribe members was common. The priests had the custom of choosing their wives from priestly families. The fiance had to feed, lodge, and clothe his fiancee. If she was convicted of adultery, she was renounced by a Letter of Divorce. If the fiance died, the fiancee was considered his widow. Certainly, during the time of betrothment, no intimate relationship was permitted. Betrothments were usually done by offering the gift of an engagement present to the fiancee. Generally, marriage was celebrated one year after the betrothment. The celebration of the family lasted one week. Outside the family house, no religious ceremony took place. The morning of the wedding, the fiancee, dressed by her parents, was covered with a veil that hid her eyes. Her friends put a sash on her. That evening, the fianc would remove the veil, and unfasten the sash. A procession left the fiancs home. It was preceded by musicians and participants carrying torches, among whom were the father of the groom, and friends of the spouse and bride. Most often the procession arrived late because they were haggling over last minute clauses in the contact of marriage, called the Ketuba. Before leaving the house of her father, the bride sang songs of lamentation. The maid of honor took care of attending to the beauty of the bride who was accompanied by virgins. The procession led to the house of the father of the groom. It was there that the marriage was celebrated. The father blessed the bride with seven blessings. Then the groom gave a gold or silver ring to his bride saying: Behold, you are made holy for me according to the Religion of Moses and of Israel. He then proclaimed a blessing over a cup of wine meant for the couple. The banquet, accompanied by song and dance, followed. When the groom came in order to be one with his wife, his friends left and extinguished their torches. Only friends of the groom remained outside, waiting for the signs of virginity. The bride would keep these all her life. The marriage was celebrated for three days if she were a virgin, for the tribunal the next day. If the bride was not a virgin, she was denounced immediately. When he remarried a widow, the marriage was celebrated for four days. The woman was to look after her husband. The husband had to provide food, clothing and lodging and fulfill the conjugal duties. Besides this, he had to buy back his wife if she were ever captured. He had to get medicine if she fell sick, and a tomb for her burial. Even the very poor was obliged to procure two flute players and one who wailed for the funeral. The woman had to obey her husband, mill the grain, cook, wash, make the meals, nurse the infants, work the wool, and, in some cases, wash the face and feet of her husband. Polygamy was permitted. After 10 years of married life without child, the husband was permitted to take another woman. The right of divorce was exclusively on the side of the husband. The text from Deuteronomy (Dt. 24:1) was subject to different interpretations between the Hillelites and Shamaites. For Hillel, things that brought displeasure to the husband gave him the right to dismiss the woman. In case of a divorce, the husband had to return to the woman the dowry prescribed in the contract of marriage. Women had to veil themselves when going outside, so that no one could recognize their face. In the countryside, they were able to take water at the fountain. Women worked in the fields, and sold olives by the door. However, a woman was never allowed to go to the fields alone. To the young girls was given the duty of feeding and dressing their father, of helping him when going out or returning when they are old, of washing their face and feet. Nevertheless, from the point of view of succession, boys came before the girls. Near the age of 12 and one half, a girl did not have the right to refuse a marriage decided by her father. The father was also able to sell his daughter as a slave. Only a girl older than 12 and one half years of age was autonomous regarding her own marriage. The Home There were two types of dwelling in ancient Israel:
TENT DWELLINGS
The tents used were larger than modern tents. They had two sections:
The tents were made from goats hair, woven in strips on large looms. Women wove the fabric for the tents, stitched them together, kept them in good repair, set them up when the camp was established, and folded and stowed them when it was time to move on. It would seem heavy work to us, but the Israelite women were strong and skilled, and they were used to working as a group. HOUSES In the courtyard you might find
As you can imagine, this area was crowded with people, animals and activity at almost any time of the day. The dynamism of economic life could not be explained without taking into account the biblical doctrine of the gift of the land. The Temple and the Land are forever linked to Jewish tradition. The experience of the Covenant centers around the gift of the land. At Sinai, the Hebrews received as heritage the land of Canaan. A heritage of acquisition, conservation, and then loss of the land, were at the heart of biblical history. The gift of the land concretized itself in that of the daily bread. It was God who gave His people His wheat, His raisins, and His oil (Os. 12:10). Rain and vegetation extended the first gift of the land. There existed a link between the fertility of the land, and the conquest of the land. Also one could find a plan to unite the national history with the Feasts of an agrarian lifestyle. The land and the gods which they produced reminded Israel of the gratuitous love of God. The economy of the city and that of the country were different. Live-stock was more expensive in the city than in the country. The price of fruit was 3 to 6 times more expensive in Jerusalem than in the country. There was such a demand for doves for sacrifice, that speculators raised the price 100% above the normal price. Beggars were never lacking in Jerusalem, in particular at the outer gates of the Temple. It is significant that in 66 BC, the Zealots burned the archives of Jerusalem where certificates of debt were kept. The common professions of the inhabitants of Jerusalem were widely known. As found in rabbinical writings, they were: bakers, butchers, shoemakers, money changers, farmers, perfumers (there was a garden of roses), and artisans who sold souvenirs to pilgrims. Certain professions were looked on with contempt. The Mishna (Qidushin 4:14) gave a list: the donkey driver, the camel driver, the sailor, the coachman, the shepherd, the shopkeeper, the doctor and the butcher. (Ketubot 7:10) included in its list the collector of dog dung, specialists in copper or bronze, and tanners. (Sanhedrin 25) contained a different list: the dice player, the usurers, the organizers of pigeon contests, the dealer in products from the sabbatical year, the shepherd, the tax collector and the publicans. No father wanted to teach these trades to his son. The inclusion of doctors on this list might catch one by surprise. Certain testimonies concerning doctors were not flattering As Rabbi Judah recalled: the better of the doctors was good for hell, and the most honest of butchers was a partner of the Amalekites (Qidushin 4:14). The rebukes given to the doctors were because they gave preferential treatment to the rich and neglected the poor. As for the butchers, they were suspected of selling meat of animals having physical defects (Sanhedrin 25a). It was difficult for shepherds, tax collectors and publicans to do penance recognized Baba Qama (94b), because they are not able to know all those whom they have wronged. The repugnant professions of garbage collector and tanner carried with them family difficulties. Spouses of those who did these jobs had the right to demand a divorce from the Tribunal with the payment of ketuba. They would say: I believed that I was able to support her, but now I cannot do it (Ketubot 7:10). The woman had an equal right to demand divorce when her husband contacted leprosy. Early Christian preachers such as the Apostle Paul brought the gospel about Jesus Christ to an empire already crammed full of deities. The citizens of the Roman empire and, within certain limits, even its rulers were extremely tolerant of foreign gods. The oldest and most accepted group of foreign deities were the gods of ancient Greece. These gods had made their home in the Roman world at an early time, along with Greek art and literature. Some of these Greek gods shared Roman names and acquired some Roman characteristics. But many others were simply accepted as they were.
According to Greek mythology, when the sons of Cronus divided the universe among themselves, Zeus received the regions above the world, Poseidon claimed the vast regions of ocean as his domain, and Hades was given the regions beneath the earth. But, except for Hades, who preferred his underworld domain, it was agreed that the clouds above Mt. Olympus should be the common dwelling place of all the gods.
Assembled on Mt. Olympus, the gods formed a kind of extended family, an exclusive society, with its own laws and hierarchy. First came the twelve great gods and goddesses: Zeus, Poseidon, Hephaestus, Hermes, Ares, and Apollo; Hera, Athene, Artemis, Hestia, Aphrodite, and Demeter. Not part of this original twelve but placed with them were several other deities, the most important of whom are Helios and Selene (the sun and the moon) and Dionysus.
As the first among equals, the mighty Zeus ruled over this frequently contentious and somewhat dysfunctional Olympian family. These gods were thought of as resembling people, except they were much bigger, more powerful, and usually more beautiful. Like mortals, they experienced emotions, such as love, hate, anger, and jealousy. But unlike mortals, their bodies always healed from the wounds of war or the ravages of disease, and they never aged. The gods also possessed the ability to change themselves into all manner of disguises, including those of animals and inanimate objects.
Zeus: Even in the ancient Greek poems of Homer and Hesiod, Zeus was the ruler of the gods, the most powerful and the most wise. But in these early days, Zeus also was guilty of numerous sexual indiscretions with both goddesses and mortal women. These liaisons resulted in the birth of a number of demi-gods and heroes, for whom the Greeks also established cults. Despite his wisdom and majesty, this early Zeus could also be petty, self-indulgent, and occasionally cruel.
By the first century before the common era, however, his identity had merged with the more serious Roman god Jupiter. And this new Zeus/Jupiter was to become the supremely just, powerful, and even benevolent protector of the Roman empire. His will for his earthly subjects was frequently equated with divine providence or the unfathomable workings of Fate.
Apollo: Not to be confused with the sun itself, which was represented by a special divinity, Helios, Apollo was nonetheless a solar god. Because the Mediterranean sun's rays strike the earth like darts, Apollo was thought of as an archer-god, whose arrows could either wound or heal. He was also the god of song and the lyre, as well as the god of divination and prophecy. His sanctuary at Delphi was one of the most sacred places in the Greek world for revelation and interpretation.
In the Iliad, Homer's epic narrative of the Trojan War, Apollo allied himself with the Trojans. Since Rome subsequently claimed the Trojans as their ancestors, it is perhaps not surprising that Rome's first emperor, Augustus, placed his reign under Apollo's special protection. To reinforce his association with the god, Augustus built a sanctuary for Apollo next to his palace on the Palatine hill in Rome. Later, the emperor Nero, who fancied himself a musician, would also claim a special association with Apollo.
Artemis: Artemis was the twin sister of Apollo. Their mother was Leto, one of the many goddesses seduced by Zeus. Like Apollo, Artemis was a goddess of the hunt. She is usually depicted as a kind of tomboy in short tunic, carrying a bow and arrows. Also like her brother, who was associated with the light of the sun, Artemis was associated with the light of the moon. As such, in some regions she was also considered the protectress of the tombs of the dead.
Very different in origin and appearance is Artemis of Ephesus, whose immense temple came to be known as one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, and whose ardent worshipers form the backdrop for one of the most dramatic encounters in the Book of Acts. This Artemis was a goddess of fertility and fecundity, who probably traveled to the area in and around Ephesus from barbarian regions further east.
Aphrodite: The daughter of Zeus by yet another minor female deity, Aphrodite was the personification of female beauty. Although all of the Olympian goddesses were beautiful in their way, only Aphrodite exuded charm and seduction. Although she may have originated as a fertility goddess, she is known primarily as the goddess of love. Her devotees ranged from unmarried girls and widows, seeking to obtain husbands, to courtesans, some of whom served in her temples. It is perhaps no surprise therefore that sailors were among her most frequent worshipers!
In the Roman world she was also identified with the goddess Venus, the beautiful and seductive goddess who was the mother of Aeneas, the founding hero of Rome according to legend. But since Julius Caesar, his nephew the emperor Augustus, and all of the Roman emperors down to Nero traced their own ancestry back to Aeneas and through him to Venus, her cult emphasized romantic, marital, and especially maternal love.
Demeter: Of the twelve original Olympian deities, Demeter was probably the one who most affected the lives and fortunes of common people. She was the goddess of fertility and of the fruits of the harvest. She was worshipped throughout the Greek world and remained important to her Greek subjects even in the Roman imperial era. She had the reputation of being accessible to the needs of mortals, on whom she bestowed the benefits of the earth's abundance.
Her primary sanctuary was at Eleusis, in the country beyond the outskirts of Athens. And her cult centered on the reenactment of a story by means of which the Greeks explained the mysteries of the agricultural seasons--how the earth's vegetation seemed to die in winter, only to be reborn again every spring.
In addition to two yearly festivals in which the end of the harvest and the renewal of the planting were commemorated, a major festival was celebrated every five years. The principal object of this festival was the public veneration of Demeter and, for those who qualified, the celebration of her mysteries. Although Romans generally were not admitted to these secret rites, the goddess wisely permitted a few. We know of at least two emperors who were initiated into her mysteries and who supported her cult with material gifts.
Since the proceedings of these mysteries and their rituals remained secret, historians do not know exactly what transpired. It is known, however, that those who participated were granted some assurance of the continued favor of the goddess, both in this life and the next.
Dionysus: Although not one of the original Olympians, the cult of Dionysus was very old and was celebrated throughout the Greek world and beyond. As the god of the vine and of the pleasures of its cultivation, his cult became associated with that of Demeter at an early time. As with Demeter, his devotees ranged the entire spectrum of the social scale. Likewise, his cultic observance ranged from dignified ceremonies and parades to orgiastic celebrations and festivals.
Later Rome, fearing that these festivals would lead to civil unrest, attempted to suppress his cult, but it met with very little success. Although the Romans could not curtail the immense popularity of Dionysus, the god's appearance and the legends surrounding his worship did change dramatically over time.
Even though fairly early in his history Dionysus's appearance changed from that of a mature, bearded man of a decidedly rustic quality to a long-haired and somewhat effeminate adolescent with exotic attributes, throughout most of his history his essential character remained that of a charming rogue. He was depicted as the god who brought the joys and ecstasies of the vine, as well as the fruits of civilization, and not only to Greece but also to far-away India and Egypt. But Dionysus also could reduce even people of consequence to madness, if they crossed him.
During the Roman period a new legend developed concerning Dionysus, one that offers intriguing parallels to Christianity. According to this legend, Dionysus was killed while battling the enemies of Zeus. His body was dismembered, but Zeus restored him to immortal life. Henceforth, according to the late first-century Greek philosopher Plutarch, Dionysus became a dying and rising god, and a symbol of ever-lasting life.
For all of their majesty and beauty, however, the Olympian deities seemed not to care about the lives of ordinary human beings. And by the arrival of the common era, with the exception of Demeter and Dionysus, these gods had become largely ceremonial. The devotion of the average Greek or Roman centered on gods of lesser rank, gods who had once been mortal and who, therefore, understood the sufferings of mortals--gods who cared.
Miracles and Healing in The Roman World In Matthew's gospel, Jesus' birth is heralded by the heavenly portent of a star rising in the East, which guides certain wise men (or astrologers) who travel from a distant land to Bethlehem to see the future king (Matt 2:1-2). In all of the gospels Jesus performs numerous healings, and on several occasions he even brings the dead back to life. And in the Book of Acts, a vision of the risen Jesus appears to Saul on the road to Damascus (Acts 9:1-7). As a result of this encounter, Saul is converted and eventually becomes Paul, who devotes the rest of his life to the service of Christ.
Although all of these religious claims seem remarkable to the modern reader, none of them would have astounded the average citizen of the early Roman empire. Stories of heavenly portents, miraculous healings, mystical visions, and even resurrections were told about a number of demi-gods or heroes. In fact, a number of supernatural phenomena were even attributed to certain philosophers and emperors.
Roman historians such as Suetonius and Tacitus frequently reported the occurrence of miraculous omens or portents regarding the emperors, particularly at the beginning or end of their reigns. Because Rome placed its rulers at the summit of human society, it was believed that they served as mediators for the will of the gods on earth. Accordingly, the appearance of omens, for good or ill, was the means by which the gods could signal the working of their will in human affairs.
After the death of Julius Caesar, Suetonius (Lives of the Caesars: Julius 88) reports that at the funeral games held in his honor "a comet shone for seven successive days, rising about the eleventh hour, and was believed to be the soul of Caesar, which had been taken into heaven." But it was Julius Caesar's adopted son, the immensely popular and widely-revered emperor Augustus, who generated the most stories of this type. According to one story, Augustus's mother was worshipping in the temple of Apollo when she fell asleep and was impregnated by the god (Suetonius Lives of the Caesars: Augustus 94). Another story also attested to Augustus's unusually close relationship to Apollo, the god of prophecy, by crediting the emperor with having divined beforehand the outcome of all of his wars (Suetonius Lives of the Caesars: Augustus 96).
Miracles: In the first century of the common era, renowned men could also be credited with having performed miracles. The popular emperor Vespasian (the former Roman general who had befriended the Jewish historian Josephus during the First Jewish Revolt) was credited with having performed several miracles. According to stories recorded by the Greek historians Dio Cassius and Tacitus, Vespasian worked several healing miracles, while visiting the shrine of Sarapis in Egypt. Among these miracles, Vespasian is credited with healing a blind man and restoring another man's crippled hand (Tacitus Histories 4.81).
But miraculous powers were not limited to emperors, or even to people from the empire's social and political elite. Miracles were a sign of a special relationship between the gods and particular individuals. People who were thought to possess great wisdom or virtue were also frequently credited with performing miracles.
One interesting example of a wonder-working, itinerant philosopher is that of Apollonius of Tyana. Apollonius was a late first-century follower of the famous Greek philosopher, Pythagoras, whom some believed had become a god. Having renounced his possessions and worldly position in virtuous pursuit of divine wisdom, Apollonius was reputed to have led a disciplined and rigorously ascetic life.
According to his later biographer, Philostratus, Apollonius possessed extraordinary gifts, including innate knowledge of all languages, the ability to foretell the future, and the ability to see across great distances. Apollonius's possession of divine wisdom also endowed him with the ability to heal the sick and demon-possessed, and Philostratus narrates the miraculous quality of a number of these cures and exorcisms.
What all of these stories of wonder workers have in common is that (in contrast to magic, which is performed by charlatans for personal profit) miracles are performed by exceptional human beings, in the service of a god, for the good of other people.
In addition to mere human beings, who were so favored either because of their extraordinary power or their extraordinary wisdom and virtue, the world of the early Roman empire was also inhabited by another group of individuals who could serve as intermediaries between the gods above and the world below. These were the demi-gods or heroes, individuals of mixed parentage (human and divine). They were usually credited with possessing extraordinary powers, while also possessing great understanding of and compassion for the pain and suffering of ordinary human beings.
In general, their demi-god status is expressed in the fact that they live as mortals; but when they die, they retain their fully vigorous human appearance, as well as their former powers. Because of their unique status and qualities, in the popular imagination these demi-gods were frequently regarded as protectors. In the world of the first century, Herakles (Hercules) and Asclepius were two of the most widely worshipped of these protector or "savior" gods.
Herakles: According to Greek legend, Herakles was the son of Zeus by a mortal woman of noble lineage, whose name was Alcmene. Zeus's vengeful wife, Hera, attempted to kill the infant Herakles by placing serpents in the cradle where he and his twin brother slept. But Herakles strangled the snakes, thus saving himself and his twin.
In addition to semi-divine parentage and birth in difficult circumstances, another common feature of the lives of demi-gods is that they encounter ignominy or great misfortune, which they must either overcome before death or resolve through death. After he was grown and married, Herakles was struck with a deadly madness and, mistaking his own wife and children for those of a bitter enemy, he killed them. It was in atonement for this terrible crime that he performed the twelve superhuman labors that rid the world of terrifying monsters and brought new security to the world's inhabitants.
Because of his superhuman strength, Herakles was the patron of athletes, and sanctuaries honoring him adorned virtually every gymnasium throughout the Greco-Roman world. But his most important role was that of powerful patron and protector of human beings and gods alike.
Asclepius: The son of Apollo by a mortal woman, Asclepius was taken by his divine father at birth and apprenticed to a wise centaur (a mythical creature, half man and half horse). This centaur, whose name was Chiron, taught Asclepius the healing arts so that he could reduce the sufferings of mortals. With his miraculous cures, Asclepius quickly earned great fame. Motivated by compassion, he even succeeded in restoring the dead to life. But this proved his undoing. Hades complained to Zeus that if this were allowed to continue, the natural order of the universe would be subverted. Zeus agreed and struck Asclepius down with a thunderbolt. In some versions of the story, Asclepius was transformed into a star after his death.
Asclepius was an immensely popular god, originally in Greece but later also in Rome. By the fourth century before the common era, he had established a number of sanctuaries in Greece, the most important ones being in Cos and Epidauros. Early in the third century BCE, his cult was brought to Rome after the city had been struck by a plague. Asclepius's medical knowledge and divine healing powers fostered two distinct traditions within the Greek world. On the one hand, he served as a divine mentor to the doctors who treated patients at his sanctuary at Cos. On the other hand, at the sanctuary of Epidauros, the god performed miraculous cures in response to the direct petitions of suppliants.
In the early Roman imperial era, Asclepius assumed an even greater religious importance. He had become a savior god. The physically or emotionally afflicted received long-term care and guidance at his sanctuaries, and in return they devoted themselves to his worship and service.
The most famous of devotee of Asclepius during the Roman imperial period was the rhetor and sophist (professional public speaker) Aelius Aristides. Having just embarked on his public career, Aristides was stricken by a complete physical and mental breakdown. After seeking the help of another god to no avail, he visited the shrine of Asclepius in his adoptive city of Smyrna.
During this visit, the god appeared to Aristides in a dream-vision, and this encounter changed his life. Asclepius not only prescribed treatments for his chronic bouts of illness, the god also offered guidance for the conduct of all aspects of his life. Thereafter, Aristides placed himself and his career under the god's protection, making numerous extended visits to the renowned Asclepius sanctuary in Pergamon. In his autobiographical narrative of his numerous encounters with the god, Aristides reveals his special relationship with Asclepius by most often addressing the god as "Savior."
Popular Savior Deities of The Early Roman Imperial Era Isis: Even though the oldest and most distinguished cults of the Roman imperial period had originated either in ancient Greece or in Rome itself, a number of foreign cults imported from the more recently conquered territories of the empire had also developed large and enthusiastic followings. This was especially true of the Egyptian cult of Isis, which, along with the relatively new cult of her consort Sarapis, together with her son Horus and an assortment of lesser deities of exotic character, had migrated first to Greece and then to Rome.
Originating in conjunction with her former husband Osiris as the personification of the divine power of the Pharaohs of ancient Egypt, Isis was worshipped continuously for thousands of years, before achieving her greatest renown in the early Roman empire. During this final period, her cult presented one of the most formidable and enduring rivalries to early Christianity.
According to the ancient Egyptian legend, Osiris succeeded to the throne of Egypt when his divine father, Geb, retired to the heavens. His sister, Isis, became his queen. Osiris brought agricultural abundance to Egypt and introduced the arts of civilization. After some years of peaceful rule, he was cruelly murdered. But Isis recovered his body and, with the aid of Thoth (Wisdom) and Anubis (Guide of dead souls), she succeeded in restoring Osiris to life. Once resurrected from death, Osiris could have returned to rule over Egypt. Instead he relinquished his throne to his son, Horus, preferring to rule over the kingdom of the dead.
Although in the myth of this early period, Isis played only a minor role, she gradually acquired an impressive list of attributes for which she was widely venerated. In the third century before Christ, Egypt was ruled by the Greek successors of Alexander the Great. It was they who substantially transformed the cult of Isis, replacing Osiris with a new divinity, Sarapis (an amalgamation of Osiris and another Egyptian god, Apis). By taking this ancient Egyptian cult of the Pharaohs and making it their own, the new rulers sought to reconcile the land and its people to Greek control.
Gradually Isis and Sarapis divided between them all the powers of the universe. Sarapis, like the Greek god Zeus, with whom he was often identified, represented a divine majesty of universal scope, encompassing rulers and nations. But Isis was a savior and protector in a far more personal way. Gradually assimilating the most important characters and attributes of a number of goddesses native to Greece, her benefactions became virtually without limits.
Isis was worshipped as the divine impetus for the establishment of justice and the laws of human society. She was also frequently associated with the benefits of agriculture and the harvest. She was known to guide women through the dangers of childbirth. In one of several surviving hymns, written in the final centuries before Christ, Isis is credited with a knowledge of the nature of all things. In another, she is venerated as the queen of every land.
This exceptional adoration is closely linked to her proven record of benefactions on behalf of ordinary people. Archaeologists have discovered a number of inscriptions in which a grateful worshiper has detailed the many gifts bestowed by the goddess, including healings and miraculous rescues from the perils of sea voyage.
Like Christianity, Isis's cult was spread by her followers, primarily to the port cities of the empire, by means of its trade and navigation routes. Also like Christianity, the cult of Isis grew from the bottom up. By the dawn of the common era, her cult had become so widespread among the masses of the Roman empire that the emperor Augustus and his immediate successors were unable to suppress it, and they eventually gave up the attempt.
By the time of the destruction of Jerusalem and the writing of the Gospel of Mark, Isis had even become a patron deity of the Roman imperial family. Her cult, with its mysteries that promised salvation to initiates, remained widely popular well into the early Christian era. In the following quotation from a Greek novel of the second century, CE, it is the goddess herself who speaks to an initiate who has earnestly sought her favor:
"Behold, Lucius. . . moved by your prayer I come to you--I the natural mother of all life, the mistress of the elements, the first child of time, the supreme divinity, the queen of the underworld, the first among those in heaven--I, whose single godhead is venerated all over the earth under manifold forms, varying rites, and changing names. . . . Queen Isis. "Behold, I have come to you in your calamity. I have come with solace and aid. Away then with tears. Cease to moan. Send sorrow fleeing. Soon through my providence shall the sun of your salvation rise." (Apuleius, Metamorphoses 11.5)
Religion and The Roman Emperors In the last century before the common era, the Greek cities had fallen prey to corrupt Roman administrators and sporadic local insurrections, as the power struggles between rival Roman factions consumed the remaining vigor of the dying Roman republic. All of these struggles came to an end when Octavian (who, as emperor, was given the name Augustus) defeated the forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the battle of Actium.
With the advent of the reign of Augustus in 27 BCE, life in the provincial cities of the Greek East became far more stable and prosperous than it had been for a very long time. The relief of the subject peoples was immense, and a number of the cities issued decrees honoring the new emperor as the earthly appearance of a benevolent god: "Providence. . .by producing Augustus [has sent] us and our descendants a Savior, who has put an end to war and established all things. . . ."
Such a response was not without precedent. Since the time of Alexander the Great, the Greeks had been accustomed to giving their rulers divine honors. But with the advent of Augustus, the situation was different. As historian S. R. F. Price observes, the decrees honoring Augustus "make explicit and elaborate comparisons between the actions of the emperor and those of the gods."
Furthermore, the worship of Augustus was not tied to specific benefactions or civic improvements. Rather, Augustus was worshipped throughout the empire as the benefactor of the whole world. The outpouring of praise, gratitude, and affection for this first emperor, who reigned at the time when Jesus was born, was undoubtedly genuine.
It was Augustus's virtually unchallenged prestige and popularity that provided the impetus for establishing a cult of the emperors. And this cult, once established, provided continuing support for the imperial governing authority. Accordingly, from the very beginning, the cult of the emperors was a complete merging of religion and politics.
The Role of the Gods in the Care of the Empire and Its Ruler: With the exception of a few gods and goddesses who ministered to the private needs of individuals, the role of the Olympian deities was to care for the various aspects of the natural world and of human society. For example, Demeter was the goddess of grain and the harvest, Poseidon ruled over the seas, Athena was the goddess of wisdom, etc. It is perhaps not surprising, therefore, that in the fourth century BCE, when a young and dashing Alexander the Great conquered all of the territory from Greece to India and bestowed the gifts of Greek culture and civilization on the barbarian regions under his armies' control, in the popular mind he became associated with the youthful version of Dionysus--the god who was also believed to have traveled from Greece to India spreading the fruits of cultivation and civilization.
Centuries later, when Augustus came to power, he claimed the special protection of Apollo. As previously noted, one reason may be that, according to Homer's Iliad, Apollo had come to the aid of the Trojans, whom the Roman claimed as ancestors. Equally important from Augustus's perspective, however, was the belief that Apollo was also the god of the sun's light and of prophecy. Accordingly, the poets of the Augustan era depicted Apollo as one of the heralds of the return of the Golden Age of human prosperity and happiness. Frequently by inference and occasionally by acclamation, Augustus himself was celebrated by these same poets as the divinely designated agent of the prophecy's fulfillment.
The Emperor as the Symbolic Presence of Zeus/Jupiter on Earth: Even more relevant to the rival message of the Christian gospels, however, was the gradual development of the relationship between the emperor and Zeus (Jupiter) himself, the sovereign ruler of the gods and the world. During Augustus's reign, a number of large imperial cameos were carved on semi-precious stones and distributed as gifts among the emperor's inner circle. |
